Pastor William Metcalfe – A Pioneer in Vegan Theology. By Dr. Chapman Chen
Pastor William Metcalfe – A Pioneer in Vegan Theology. By Dr. Chapman Chen
Summary: Pastor William Metcalfe (1788-1862) was an often underrated pioneer in Vegan Theology, an animal rights activist, and a homeopathic physician. He was probably among the first Christian theologians and priests in the last 200 years to proclaim Christianity a vegan faith. Although the term Metcalfe actually used was vegetarianism, what he meant must have been veganism in today's terms, as his doctrine was grounded in theological and moral principles. An English-American Christian minister, he founded the vegetarian Philadelphia Bible Christian Church and co-founded the American Vegetarian Society. His most important work is Bible Testimony on Abstinence from the Flesh of Animals as Food (1840).
Metcalfe is indeed likely one of the first theologians and Christian ministers since St. Jerome to re-examine the Bible from a vegan perspective and proclaim veganism as a core tenet of the Christian faith. He argues that Jesus is always a vegan Christ who neither declared all foods clean nor ate fish. Per Metcalfe, Matthew 15:11 simply means that a small amount of dirt taken in by eating without washing hands will not defile a person; and the Greek word “opsarion” for fish in Jesus’ related miracle means a relish taken with bread instead of fish as an animal. In this respect, Metcalfe goes one step further than contemporary Christian animal theologians such as Prof. Andrew Linzey and Prof. David Clough, both of whom still maintain that Jesus ate fish.
Metcalfe also stresses that God prescribed a vegan diet to humans in Genesis 1:29 and that it is absurd to believe that God subsequently found this to be a most serious mistake, and shifted to a plan B diet for humans. Metcalfe contends that the commandment “Thou shalt not kill” was “benevolently intended” by God to extend to the animal creation; that we should adopt veganism not merely for the sake of asceticism or health, but also out of divine compassion and mercy towards animals; that the “moving things” which God permitted Noah and his descendants to eat were actually creeping plants; that animal sacrifices in the Old Testament “were not of divine appointment”; that Jesus’ death in the NT is neither a penal substitution nor a cannibalistic, sacrificial cult. That being said, Metcalfe, unlike Keith Akers (2000), did not identify the liberation of animals from the Jerusalem Temple as the specific reason Jesus was crucified.
Metcalfe further points out that the decree issued by the Jerusalem Council around AD 50 was a vegan decree; and that God never actually intended Peter to kill and eat unclean animals (it’s just a command to do away with discrimination against the gentiles).
Last but not the least, Metcalfe well may have been the first theologian to propose a systematic strategy for animal rights activism.
1. Who’s Pastor William Metcalfe
William Metcalfe was born in Orton, Westmoreland, on March 11, 1788, to Jonathan and Elizabeth Metcalfe. At the age of 19, he became a clerk in Keighly, Yorkshire. There, he encountered a congregation of Swedenborgians led by Rev. Joseph Wright, to whom Metcalfe became attached. Wright persuaded Metcalfe to study theology, leading him to an academy in Salford, presided over by William Cowherd, the founder of the (vegetarian) Bible Christian Church. Cowherd ordained Metcalfe as a minister in 1811. In 1810, Metcalfe married Susanna, a fellow vegetarian and abstainer, who was the daughter of Rev. Joseph Wright; their son, Joseph, was born in the same year.
In 1817, Metcalfe, and the Reverend James Clark, along with around 40 members of the Bible Christian Church, embarked on a journey to the United States under the guidance of Cowherd. There they formed the Philadelphia Bible Christian Church; it was not only the United States' first vegetarian church but also the inaugural assembly of a substantial community embracing vegetarianism. The community Metcalfe led were vegetarians who not only refrained from consuming flesh but also held the conviction that Jesus himself was vegetarian.
Metcalfe was the first outspoken advocate of vegetarianism to gain recognition throughout the Northeastern United States. He later befriended the prominent vegetarianism advocate Dr. William Alcott. He also invited guest speakers to Philadelphia, with Sylvester Graham being one of the notable figures. In 1850 Metcalfe, Graham, Alcott and Russell Trall, established the American Vegetarian Society (AVS) in New York City.
In 1840, Metcalfe published his most important theological work, Bible Testimony on Abstinence from the Flesh of Animals as Food: Being an Address Delivered in the Bible-Christian Church.
In 1854 Metcalf's wife died. In 1859, following the death of AVS President William Alcott, he was chosen as his successor. Metcalf himself died of a pulmonary haemorrhage on October 16, 1862, at the age of 74. In 1872, his son published his father's treatise under the title Out of the Clouds and into the Light.
2. Insistence on Vegetarianism as a Core Tenet of Christianity
When Pastor Metcalfe moved from the UK to the USA in 1817, he settled in Philadelphia, where he rented a house that served as his dwelling place at all times, a schoolroom on weekdays, and the vegetarian Philadelphia Bible Church on the Sabbath day. Metcalfe’s and his family’s livelihood was wholly dependent on his teaching (Metcalfe and Metcalfe 1872, p. 19).
Unfortunately, in 1818, a plague broke out in the neighbourhood of his residence, and a couple of his pupils died. As a consequence, his school was largely deserted (Metcalfe and Metcalfe 1872, p. 20). At that time, a couple of rich and powerful friends of his offered him an academy under the patronage of a prestigious religious domination and/or the pastorship of a well established congregation, insuring him a decent living, on condition that he stopped propagating his vegetarian Christian beliefs. Metcalfe, however, politely but unfalteringly declined the offer (Metcalfe and Metcalfe 1872, p. 21).
Apart from financial difficulties, Metcalfe was also denounced a “sceptic” and an “infidel” by certain mainstream churches for his vegetarian Christian beliefs (Metcalfe and Metcalfe 1872, p. 28). Under these particularly challenging circumstances, he still industriously persisted in sowing the seeds of his moral and religious reforms (Metcalfe and Metcalfe 1872, p. 22). Beyond his preaching duties, he devoted his time to instructing in the church's modest school and authored and published two newspapers addressing topics like vegetarianism, animal rights, abolitionism, pacifism, and temperance. He also treated patients with homeopathy.
Instead of founding a new religion, Metcalfe’s veggie church aims at interpreting the sacred Scriptures aright. “The Scriptures, rightly interpreted, do not sanction the eating of either fish, or flesh, or fowl,” proclaims Metcalfe (Metcalfe 1840, p. 31). He is adamant that “besides the ordinary virtues of Christian professors, the appointed laws revealed in the Divine Word also require abstinence from the flesh of animals as food, from all intoxicating liquors as beverages, and from war, capital punishment, and slavery” (Metcalfe and Metcalfe 1872, p. 26). As a religious commune, they have long abandoned the popular practice of consuming the flesh of slaughtered animals, and have instead committed themselves entirely to a plant-based diet, following the guidance of the Holy Bible in all their endeavours (Metcalfe 1840, pp. 5-6).
Pastor Metcalfe’s vegetarian Christian beliefs are based on the following sacred precepts – God prescribed a vegan diet from the very beginning; God never permitted Noah and his clan to eat animals; “Thou shalt not kill” applies not only to humans but also to animals; animal sacrifices in the OT were not intended by God; Jesus was/is a veggie Christ who neither consumed fish nor declared all animal flesh clean; Jesus’ disciples were also vegetarians; God did not want Peter to kill and eat animals; and the first decree of the Jerusalem Council was a veggie one, etc.
3. God Prescribed a Vegan Diet from the Very Beginning
Pastor Metcalfe points out that God gave humans a vegan diet from the very beginning – “Behold I have given you even every herb bearing seed which is upon the face of the earth and every tree in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed, to you it shall be for food” (Genesis 1:29). It would therefore, as argued by Metcalfe, be absurd to believe that God subsequently found this to be a most serious mistake, and shifted to a plan B diet for humans, making it now lawful to eat animals (Metcalfe 1840, p. 6)!
4. God Never Permitted Noah and his Offspring to Eat Animals
As pointed out by Metcalfe, in rebuttal of the vegetarian principle based on Genesis 1:29, many flesh-greedy Christians would assert that God gave Noah and his descendants the license to kill and eat animals after the Deluge:- “Every moving thing that liveth shall be meat for you; even as the green herb have I given you all things” (Gen.9:3-5 KJV).
With regard to this claim, Metcalfe, referencing the Hebrew version, argues that a more accurate translation of “every moving thing” is “every creeper.” Now, Metcalfe indicates that there are two kinds of creepers: vegetable creepers and animal ones. “Animal creepers”, i.e., reptiles, are out of the question because they are explicitly forbidden as articles of food (Leviticus 11:42). Thus, the creeper which Noah was allowed by eat by God was the vine, or grapes, of every kind (Metcalfe 1840: Chapt. 13). This is corroborated by God immediately afterwards declaring “Flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof shall ye not eat, for surely your blood of your lives will I require”(Gen. 9:4-5 KJV); by Noah and his sons subsequently planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20 KJV) (Metcalfe 1840: Chapt.12-13); and by God having inspired His prophet to announce to us most solemnly that “He that killeth an ox is as if he slew a man” (Isaiah 66:3 KJV) (cf. Metcalfe 1840: Chapt.11).
Note that linguistically speaking, "for surely your blood of your lives will I require" could mean either "I will surely require you to pay for shedding animals' blood (primarily for consumption) with your own lifeblood" or "If your lifeblood is shed, I will require the killer, be it a human or an animal, to pay for it." Metcalfe naturally opted for the first meaning.
5. Thou Shalt Not Kill Any Sentient Beings!
Corresponding to his veggie interpretation of Genesis 9:3-5, Pastor Metcalfe contends that the application of the Sixth Commandment “Thou shalt not kill” was “benevolently intended” by the Great and Merciful God “to reach the animal creation”, on the ground that God cares about all His creation -- "The cattle upon a thousand hills are mine," saith Jehovah (Psalm 50:10), and “not even a single sparrow falleth to the ground without the knowledge of your heavenly Father" (Matt. 10:29). It follows that no one “has authority or presumption to limit this precept to killing men” (Metcalfe 1840, p.16).
6. Go Veggie for Mercy for God’s Creatures
To justify the application of the law against killing to cover both humans and animals, Metcalfe appeals to compassion on the part of both God and humans.
Would not the principles of mercy and the sympathies of the human heart lead our judgments to such a conclusion? For our own part, we believe most sincerely that this law was engraven not only on the table of stone on Mount Sinai, but that the finger of God has written it also on our hearts; hence that there exists within us, whilst uncorrupted by the world, a repugnancy to killing animals, and also an aversion to feeding on their flesh! (Metcalfe 1840, pp. 16-17)
Metcalfe is indeed one of the first theologians after Saint Basil of Caesarea and St. Francis of Assisi to advocate non-killing of animals for food not only for the sake of asceticism and health, but also out of compassion and mercy!
7. Animal Sacrifices in the OT Were Not of God’s Appointment!
Metcalfe stresses that “animal sacrifices” in the Old Testament “were not of divine appointment”, that they were products of human evilness and enmity to the Divine will. For the Prophet Hosea presents Jehovah as saying, “I desired mercy and not sacrifice” and the knowledge of God rather than burnt offerings. And also in Jeremiah, “I spake not unto your fathers, nor commanded them, in that day I brought them out of the land of Egypt, concerning burnt offerings and sacrifices but this thing I commanded them saying, obey my voice and I will be your God and ye shall be my people; and walk ye in the ways that I have commanded you that it may be well with you” (Jer. 7:22-23) (Metcalfe 1840, p 25).
How could the All-Benevolent God possibly be pleased with the slaughtering of innocent creatures and the odour of their burnt bodies, rhetorically asks Metcalfe:-
What kind of conceptions, we would also ask, must those persons have who entertain the vulgar notions in relation to sacrifices, respecting the Great Jehovah, who seem seriously to believe that he was delighted with the butchering of sheep and oxen; and fancy that the stench of burnt flesh was a sweet-smelling savour in his nostrils? Who can conceive that the beautiful structure raised by Solomon, and consecrated to the worship of Jehovah, could not be deemed an appropriate place for the manifestation of the Divine Purity, until it became filled with the fumes of burning victims and defiled with the filth, and blood, and garbage which must obviously be the concomitants of such butchery. (Metcalfe 1840, p. 25)
7.1. Metcalfe Rejected Jesus’ Death as a Sacrificial Ritual
Metcalfe addresses the conventional understanding that ancient sacrifices foreshadowed Christ's crucifixion. He argues, strikingly: “This is said even of the great sacrifice of Christ itself; it was not desired, it was not required.” (Metcalfe 1872, Out of the Clouds, pp. 188–189).
In Discourse XIV (Metcalfe 1872, pp. 217–218), Metcalfe distinguishes Christ's suffering from punishment imposed to satisfy divine wrath. He writes, “the sufferings of Jesus Christ were pacificatory, or peaceful, not penal and vicarious”. He explains that Christ's suffering was necessary for the glorification of His human nature and the communication of divine love and wisdom to humanity. He further interprets Christ's flesh and blood spiritually, associating them with divine love and truth rather than literal bodily consumption (Metcalfe 1872, pp. 220–222).
That being said, Metcalfe, unlike Keith Akers (2000), does not attribute Jesus’ crucifixion to His liberating the sacrificial animals from the Temple.
8. Jesus is a Veggie Christ
Metcalfe is adamant that Jesus is a veggie Christ on the ground that Jesus “came not to destroy but to fulfil” the laws of Divine order (Matt. 5:17), which Metcalfe has established to be veggie. "Be as wise as serpents," our Saviour instructs his disciples, "and as harmless as doves” (Matt. 10:16). Naturalists describe the serpent as one of the most vigilant creatures, while the dove is seen as innocent and non-aggressive, feeding solely on vegetarian foods. Therefore, it seems to Metcalfe that the followers of the gentle and humble Jesus should embody these qualities—exercising discrete judgment and adopting a diet that reflects their peaceful nature. "He was a Nazarite from the womb" (Judges 13:5) "that he may know to choose the good, and to reject the evil" (Isaiah 7:15); Metcalfe quotes ancient prophets to support his point.
Metcalfe concludes that it is the obligation of His followers to endeavour to mirror His radiant and magnificent example as much as they can.
On the other hand, instead of denouncing, as Prof. Robert Eisenman (2012) does, Paul as a Roman spy who corrupted Jesus' original vegan church from the inside out, Metcalfe seeks to reconcile Paul's writings with his own vegan theology. In Out of the Clouds: Into the Light (1872), pp. 176–177, Metcalfe quotes Paul's words in Romans 14:21: “It is good neither to eat flesh nor to drink wine.” Metcalfe interprets this as evidence that Paul upheld the vegetarian principles of the early Christian Church.
In fact, Metcalfe regarded Paul as an authoritative apostle whose teachings supported Christian vegetarianism.
Out of the clouds into_the_light_(IA_outofcloudsintol00metc).pdf
Thus, rather than portraying Paul as an enemy of Jesus' teachings, Metcalfe sought to reconcile Paul's writings with his own vegetarian theology.
9. Jesus’ Vegetarianism is Preceded by His Cousin John the Baptist and Emulated by His Disciples
As further corroborative evidence of Jesus’ vegetarianism, Metcalfe notes that Jesus’ predecessor cum cousin, John the Baptist, as well as Jesus’ disciples and the entire early church, were all veggie; and writes words to the effect of the following:
John the Baptist, who came before Jesus to pave the way, lived on locusts (the fruit of the locust tree) and wild honey. Despite this simple diet, it is emphatically stated that no one born of a woman has been greater than John (Metcalfe 1840, p. 27).
Peter, James, and John were fishers with their father Zebedee; however, the renowned Calmet asserts that "they never ate fish, flesh, or fowl." In short, there are numerous accounts suggesting that the veggie doctrine was upheld by the entire Christian Church for over two hundred years. Philo, in his works on the Christians of his time, remarks that "they not only abstain from eating meat, but none among them willingly engage in making weapons like darts, arrows, swords, helmets, or breastplates, nor any tools that could be misused in times of peace; much less do any of them participate in war or its practices."
10. The Veggie Decree Issued by the Jerusalem Council
Yet another piece of important evidence provided by Metcalfe is the first decree issued by the Jerusalem Council, consisting of Jesus’ disciples, which Metcalfe interprets to be a veggie one:-
Soon after the commencement of the Christian Church, the Apostles held a council, whence was subsequently promulgated a decree to the Churches, composed principally at that period of Gentile converts. In that important document, the members of the first Christian Council declare, "It seemeth good to the Holy Spirit, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things: that ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, (that is, the blood of the grape, in your religious feasts, when rendered intoxicating by fermentation,) and from things strangled" — or, in other words, "which have suffered a violent death." But do not all animals which fall a sacrifice to the butcher's knife suffer a violent death?
In opposition to the standpoint of veggie Christians, many may cite the words of Jesus to the Pharisees: “Not that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man” (Matt. 15:11 KJV); the miracle of five loaves and two fish; Jesus eating fish upon resurrection; God telling Peter to kill and eat animals. Let’s see how Metcalfe deals with these objections one by one.
11. Jesus Did Not Declare All Foods Clean
Regarding Matthew 15:11, Metcalfe rhetorically asks, “Does anyone seriously imagine and really believe that our Saviour, by this declaration, meant to give full license to gluttony and intemperance, or that his followers might eat or drink anything with impunity which the Law of God had forbidden to be used?” (Metcalfe 1840, p. 28). To comprehend the intended meaning of these words, Metcalfe suggests, we must consider the context in which they were uttered:- “the Pharisees being offended, murmured at the disciples of Jesus for sitting down to meat with unwashed hands; not any little soil taken into the mouth by eating with unwashed hands can be said to defile the man” (ibid.). To put it in another way, “a small amount of dirt taken in by eating without washing hands will not tarnish a person. This, Metcalfe understands, is the clear and straightforward message of the passage” (ibid.).
Metcalfe also draws our attention to the fact that these words were uttered around two decades before the Apostolic Decree, which Metcalfe has shown to be veggie. It is highly unlikely that the twelve disciples of Jesus would issue a decree that forthrightly contradicts the declaration of the one whose mission they campaigned and by whose authority they had boldly and confidently presented themselves as defenders of the Gospel Dispensation (ibid.).
12. Jesus Did not Eat Fish
Metcalfe addresses in the following way the claims that Jesus fed the crowd with loaves and fishes (Matt. 14:13-21, Mark 6:30-44, Luke 9:10-17, John 6:5-14), and ate broiled fish and honeycomb (Luke 24:42-43), and that several of his disciples were fishermen (Matthew 4:18-22, Mark 1:16-20):-
First, that there are various sorts of fishermen, such as pearl fishers, coral fishers, fishers of submarine and water-plants of various kinds, as well as of the living or animal fish; and secondly, that the term used for fish in the Gospel does not mean fish in its common acceptation. Parkhurst, in his Greek Lexicon, says, and his authority will be duly respected, "It seems not very natural to understand the Greek word opsarion (John xxi 9) as signifying fish. It signifies some other kind of provision, of the delicious sort that may be eaten with bread. (Metcalfe 1840, pp. 30-31)
Note that John Parkhurst (1728-1797) was an English lexicographer and theologian known for his work on biblical languages. He authored A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament, which was first published in 1769. This lexicon is notable for its detailed explanations of Greek words and phrases used in the New Testament, often supported by references to passages of Scripture and citations from both the Old Testament and Greek writers.
13. God Did Not Really Want Peter to Kill and Eat Animals
How about the vision of Peter in which he was told by a voice from heaven to “rise … kill and eat” (Acts 10:13)? Well, Metcalfe asserts that it is by no means an incontestable proof that the human species is sanctioned by the Holy Bible to consume animals. For firstly, Peter surely did not do as he was told. Secondly, as living creatures of flesh and blood simply cannot enter the Heavenly Kingdom, there’s no possibility that they were in actually let down from Heaven in a sheet and subsequently “all drawn up again into Heaven” (Acts 11:10). Thirdly, judging from Peter’s own view on this event -- "Of a truth," says he, "I perceive that God is no respecter of persons: but that in every nation, he that feareth him and worketh righteousness is accepted with him" [Acts 10:34-34] – the message conveyed by God via this vision to Peter is not to “call any Christian common or unclean”, i.e., to do away with any discrimination against the Gentiles (Metcalfe 1840, p. 29). In fact, immediately following the vision, he “went in to eat sacramentally with men that were uncircumcised, on their becoming Christians—God having in this way taught him so to do” (Metcalfe 1840, p. 30).
14. Animal Rights Activism Strategies
Pastor William Metcalfe is also the first theologian to develop a set of animal rights activism strategies. His strategies, as shown below, emphasize a peaceful and educational approach rather than confrontational methods. This contrasts with the militant action of Jesus in liberating sacrificial animals from the Temple, and the methods of modern animal rights activists like Direct Action Everywhere, though Jesus and the modern animal rights activists have certainly also invested a lot of resources in exert an edifying influence on the public. Anyway, all roads lead to Rome. In essence, Metcalfe advocates for:
A. Meekness and Holiness: Engaging in activism with a spirit of humility, prayer, and cooperation with divine guidance.
B. Instruction and Correction: Educating others to change public sentiment and habits to foster universal humanity.
C. Moral Awakening: Believing that as people become more aware of the biblical principles of diet, they will naturally move away from cruel practices that cause unnecessary suffering to animals.
D. Leading by Example: Demonstrating a pure and consistent example of Christian values, which is more persuasive than contentious debate.
E. Patience and Perseverance: Understanding that change will not happen immediately and that overcoming human prejudices and erroneous sentiments takes time.
F. Devotion and Kindness: Using devotion, kindness, and affection to soften hearts and reclaim those who are misguided. (Metcalfe 1840, pp. 33-34).
15. Conclusion
Pastor Metcalfe is a very much underrated veggie theologian. He reviewed the Bible from a veggie perspective much earlier than most modern animal theologians. His pioneering contribution to vegan theology cannot be overestimated. During the last two thousand years, extremely few theologians have dared to proclaim Christianity as a veggie faith, Jesus as a veggie Christ, and vegetarianism/veganism as a faith-and-compassion-based mandatory rule for Christians.
Jesus Christ Himself, of course, died for the cause of animal liberation and veganism (cf. Akers 2000). Apart from Jesus, however, according to the currently available record, over the last two thousand years, only the Jerusalem Council (consisting of James the Just, Peter, John, etc.), St. Jerome, Mr. Roger Crab, Mr. Thomas Tryon, Pastor William Cowherd, Pastor Charles Fillmore from the Unity School of Christianity, Vicar James Thompson, Rev. V.A. Holmes-Gore, Pastor J.R. Hyland, Keith Akers, Prof. Robert Eisenman, Pastor Robert Munro from the Humanitarian Church, New York, Pastor Shells from Edenkind, Pastor Timo from Genesis 1:29 Church for Christian Vegans, and Pastor Craig Douglas Wescoe from Creation Care Church, Mr. Colin Ayres from the Vegan Church in Taunton, Rev. Sr. D. Kathryn from the Unless Ministries, and what not have ventured to state the sacred vegan principle of Christianity in an unequivocal way. Even Vicar James Thompson (1994:35), Rev. Prof. Andrew Linzey (1995:133-135) and Prof. David Clough (2022), think that Jesus probably ate fish.
Sources:
Metcalfe, William (1840). Bible Testimony on Abstinence from the Flesh of Animals as Food: Being an Address Delivered in the Bible-Christian Church. Philadelphia : J. Metcalfe & Co. https://archive.org/details/bibletestimonyon11metc/page/7/mode/1up?ref=ol&view=theater
Metcalfe, William and Metcalfe, Joseph (1872). Out of the Clouds into the Light. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. https://archive.org/details/outofcloudsintol00metc/page/184/mode/2up?q=animal&view=theater
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